History of Portrait Miniatures | The Starr Collection of Portrait Miniatures – Conserving an Artistic Legacy
Portraits provide visible, tangible reminders of human presence. Portrait miniatures, most less than three inches tall, are even more intimately connected to us. Unlike their larger counterparts in oil, which often hang high up on a wall in homes or at exhibitions, portrait miniatures were designed to be held in one’s hand, extending notions of remembrance between the wearer and the individual represented. Frequently worn on the body as necklaces, rings, or brooches, or hidden for private perusal, they signal love, loss, allegiance, or affection for the subject. Through close study, one can often gain insight into moments that occasioned their production, such as diplomatic gifts, marriage, birth, death, or prolonged periods of absence. No other form of Western portraiture has such deeply personal associations.
Origins and Development
Scholars believe that there are a number of possible origins for and influences on the development of portrait miniatures. Some point to sonnets by the Italian scholar and poet Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca; 1304–1374), which mention a portable portrait (now lost) of his lover, Laura, by Simone Martini (Italian, about 1284–1344). Others identify as influential the broader Renaissance interest in classical medals, medallions, coins, and cameos, such as the bronze medals of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini (1417–1468) made by modeler, manuscript illuminator, painter, and architect Matteo de Pasti (Italian, 1420–1467), due to their shape and scale.
Closest in medium and technique to portrait miniatures, though, is the colorful tradition of illuminated manuscripts, first painted in egg tempera and then later in watercolor on vellum between the 1100s and the mid-1500s. These early illustrated books were made in a variety of sizes and for a variety of purposes, but most were designed to be handheld, with illustrations that roughly matched the scale of miniature portraits. The small scale of manuscript illuminations and the use of the word ‘miniatures’ to describe them may be where some of the confusion stems over the origin story of portrait miniatures. Contrary to popular belief, the word ‘miniature’ does not, in fact, come from the word ‘minute’ but from the Latin word miniare, which means to color with red lead—a practice employed for the decorative capital letters in early book illustrations (or illuminations, as they were called) from the 1400s.
In the late 1500s and early 1600s, several miniaturists—including Nicholas Hilliard (English, ca. 1547–1619), who authored a technical treatise on miniature painting called The Art of Limning (ca. 1598), and Edgar Norgate (English, 1581–1650), who authored Miniatura or The Arte of Limning (ca. 1628)—conflated some of manuscript illumination’s terminology with the emerging art of portrait miniatures. Hilliard used the English word ‘limning’ to refer to portrait miniatures, and Norgate used ‘miniature’, the Italian word for illuminations, in the same context.
The practice of painting portrait miniatures was not dissimilar to painting illuminated manuscripts. A self-portrait by one of the latter’s greatest practitioners, Simon Benning (or Benninck; Netherlandish, 1483/84–1561), highlights the methods used to paint small-scale pictures. Both illuminators and portrait miniaturists utilized a slanting easel and relied on natural light. Despite the intimate scale of their work, most artists did not use magnifying tools, although Benning’s glasses suggest the effort required to execute such intricate details.
Prominent Artists and Styles
The earliest examples of portrait miniatures independent from the bound vellum manuscript page appeared at the French and English courts in the 1520s. The genre became increasingly popular, with numerous skilled practitioners emerging in the 1600s and 1700s. One of the most renowned was the English artist Samuel Cooper (ca. 1608–1672), who excelled at capturing the character of his sitters through subtle coloring and masterful use of the watercolor medium.
In the mid-1700s, the emergence of academically trained artists took miniature painting to new heights. These included Jeremiah Meyer, Richard Cosway (English, 1742–1821), John Smart, and George Engleheart (English, 1750–1829), who painted on a larger scale (often exceeding three inches) and developed techniques to highlight the luminous qualities of ivory, the preferred support. Many of these artists ranked among the greatest portraitists of the age, alongside oil painters such as Thomas Gainsborough, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and George Romney.
Techniques and Materials
Portrait miniature painters used water-based pigments that allowed for more transparency and subtler colors than the egg-based tempera paint used in early book illumination. However, watercolor is extremely sensitive to light and prone to fading. Watercolor is often considered a light and translucent medium, but when ground pigment is blended with a binding agent, typically gum arabic, and mixed with white paint, it can become rich and dense. This medium, called bodycolor, came out of the illuminated manuscript tradition and was employed to lay in the rich backgrounds and solid dark colors seen, for example, in Benning’s self-portrait.
Early miniatures were painted on vellum, generally made of calf, sheep, or goat skin. A naturally hygroscopic material, meaning it easily absorbs moisture from the air, vellum is prone to expand or contract depending on humidity, which can destabilize the paint surface. To address this, artists often adhered vellum to a playing card with starch paste to add support.
In the 1630s, the Swiss goldsmith and jeweler Jean Petitot introduced enamel portraiture to England as a more durable form of miniature than traditional watercolor on vellum. The intense firing process in a kiln ensures that the colors in enamel paintings do not fade, but the technique also carries risks of cracks and kiln dust.
Toward the end of the 1600s, the plumbago portrait miniature became popular in England and the Netherlands. Created using graphite on parchment or vellum, this monochrome medium initially served as the basis for an engraving but later became an art form in its own right. The accessibility of graphite from mines in England’s Borrowdale region may have contributed to the dramatic rise in popularity of plumbago portraits in the 1660s.
In the early 1700s, the Italian artist Rosalba Carriera first realized that ivory would be a better support than vellum for the depiction of flesh tones, hair, and textiles due to its inherent luminosity when cut into thin sheets. This material soon became the primary support for miniatures, though it is not the easiest surface on which to work. Ivory is extremely sensitive to light, temperature, and humidity changes, which can cause it to shrink, swell, crack, split, and warp.
Art Conservation and Restoration
The delicate nature of portrait miniatures presents unique challenges for art conservators charged with preserving these intimate artworks. Watercolor on vellum is prone to flaking and paint loss due to the material’s hygroscopic properties and tendency to expand and contract. Enamel paintings risk cracking and kiln dust damage from the intense firing process. Ivory miniatures are highly vulnerable to environmental factors that can compromise their structural integrity.
Conservators might want to employ specialized techniques to stabilize and treat portrait miniatures. For vellum, this may involve adhering the delicate support to a more stable card or mounting. Enamel paintings require careful cleaning and stabilization to address cracks and surface issues. Ivory supports necessitate meticulous handling, as well as methods to facilitate paint adhesion, such as roughening the surface or applying binding agents.
Beyond the material-specific concerns, conservation efforts might want to also consider the artistic intent and historical context of each miniature. Ethical considerations come into play, as conservators might want to balance preservation with maintaining the work’s aesthetic and conceptual integrity. Invasive treatments are avoided in favor of minimal intervention approaches that retain the artist’s original work as much as possible.
Innovative imaging and analytical techniques have emerged as critical tools in portrait miniature conservation. Advanced methods like X-ray fluorescence, infrared reflectography, and 3D scanning can provide invaluable data on the materials, techniques, and condition of these delicate artworks without causing harm. This scientific data informs conservation decisions and helps conservators develop tailored treatment plans.
Conserving the Starr Collection
The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art’s Starr Collection of Portrait Miniatures, 1500–1850 represents a remarkable artistic legacy that conservators are dedicated to preserving. This comprehensive collection, which spans over three centuries, offers a unique window into the evolution of portrait miniatures and the skilled artists who created them.
Conserving the Starr Collection requires a multifaceted approach. Careful condition assessments, environmental monitoring, and specialized treatment techniques are essential to stabilizing the diverse array of materials—from fragile vellum to reactive ivory. Innovative imaging and analytical technologies provide conservators with crucial insights into the works’ materials, techniques, and conservation needs.
Beyond the physical preservation of the artworks, the Starr Collection’s curatorial team is committed to making this remarkable resource more accessible to the public. Digitization efforts, online catalogues, and interactive educational initiatives allow visitors to engage with the collection in new and meaningful ways. By sharing the history, artistry, and conservation challenges of portrait miniatures, the museum aims to cultivate a deeper appreciation for this intimate and captivating art form.
Through their collaborative efforts, the Nelson-Atkins Museum’s conservators, curators, and educators are ensuring that the Starr Collection’s artistic legacy is conserved and celebrated for generations to come. By blending cutting-edge preservation techniques with public outreach, they are safeguarding these precious portraits while inspiring others to discover the enduring power of the miniature format. To learn more, visit Pencil and Paint Muse.
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